Kalpana

Chapter 34 Schleppegrell, M. (2008). Handbook of Research on Writing (Ed.). //Grammar, the Sentence, and Traditions of Linguistic Analysis.// LEA, New York. This is a very difficult chapter with several references to studies, theories, linguists, and concepts. I have done my best. Thanks.

Kalpana M. Iyengar Dr. Horowitz Oral Presentation 7/13/11

Grammar, the Sentence, and Traditions of Linguistic Analysis Approaches to Grammatical Analysis According Halliday, “language cannot be dissassociated from meaning.” Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) – function and semantics as the foundation of language and communication in human beings. ideational, interpersonal, and textual – textual vocabulary and register Ideational modals of - obligation (must, need, should), ability and possibility (can, could), epistemic possibility (may, might), volition and prediction (will, shall), and hypothetical modals: (would, should) Interpersonal – discourse markers/do not change the meaning of the sentence

     Learn English 77 - Studying English on Howcast

Prague school of linguistics – theme/theme – Theme/what an utterance is about, point of departure – Rheme/what an utterance says about the Theme

// Constructs for the Study of Grammar in Written Text // Halliday and Matthiessen – six categories of verbs/material, behavioral, verbal, mental, relational, and existential Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, and Finegan based on categories of Quirk et al/public, private, suasive (persuasive), and perception categories. Text organization and presentation, and writer’s stance

// Sentence, Clause, T-Unit, Clause Complex // Clause – “primary constituent in writing research from a grammatical perspective” (p. 550). It is the basic unit of grammatical analysis of text. Sentence is problematic for writing and speech comparison because sentence evolved with writing system as an orthographic/correct spelling convention.

T-Unit/Hunt/ structural. TG – students do not use full stops and try to string clauses with the coordinating conjunction (and). “One main clause plus all the subordinate clauses attached to or embedded within it” (p. 551). T-Unit was a sign of maturity in students. Clause complex – Halladayan construct of grammar

// Noun, Theme, Subject // Key to constructing text, 83% of the words in scientific discourse occurs in NP, and complexity of the nominal (names) group is a frequent topic of research on writing. Nominalization – all nouns with suffixes such as tion, ment, ness, ity. Biber - Corpus Lingusitics/language study as found in real world texts (opposing to Chomsky’s generative grammar/study of syntax/study of principles and rule ) [] Theme – Halliday http://youtu.be/jj2rBxKRZSc // What Research has Sought and Found // // Speaking and Writing //

http://youtu.be/nC-blhaIUCk "Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. For Halliday, children are motivated to acquire language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and representational, all helping the child to come to terms with his or her environment.
 * **Instrumental**: This is when the child uses language to express their needs (e.g.'Want juice')
 * **Regulatory**: This is where language is used to tell others what to do (e.g. 'Go away')
 * **Interactional**: Here language is used to make contact with others and form relationships (e.g. 'Love you, mummy')
 * **Personal**: This is the use of language to express feelings, opinions, and individual identity (e.g. 'Me good girl')
 * **Heuristic**: This is when language is used to gain knowledge about the environment (e.g. 'What the tractor doing?')
 * **Imaginative**: Here language is used to tell stories and jokes, and to create an imaginary environment.
 * **Representational**: The use of language to convey facts and information."

Email: **niyi@temple.edu**  Office telephone: 215-204-4533
 * F. Niyi Akinnaso, Ph.D. Associate Professor **

Speech and writing/continuum for grammatical organization of language.

Chafe/cognitivist and deals with semantics – supportive of clause Halliday – spoken language/dynamic and written language/synoptic (broad view) with simple sentence structure with frequent embedding (group that is a subgroup)

Division between spoken and written has limitations/text types more important than differences in mode.

// Language Development // Syntactic complexity/Hunt’s T-Unit Lexical density/lexeme (morphological unit of analysis)/run-runs,ran, running are of the same lexeme. It is the measure of texts (between spoken and written language of a person) Lexical Density Thursday, 30 April 2009 19:46 Graham Williamson ** Written Language and Spoken Language ** Consider Text 1 below, which is an example of Margaret Williamson’s **written language** extracted from her the book [|Life at the ICI]. Now, take a look at Text 2 which is an example of Margaret’s [|speech], i.e. **spoken language**. [Text 2 is actually a summary of all of her spoken utterances as they appear in lines 1-36 of the example broad transcription in the article on this website entitled [|Transcribing Conversation], where Margaret is denoted as ‘M’.] what do you fancy doing on Saturday yeah well we talked about Saturday or Sunday but Bede and Sinners are playing on Sunday so wouldn’t give us much time to get back for four o clock especially if we wanted to go to Browton so probably Saturday but we’ve got the...Paul Norton and his wife coming round on the evening time for a meal mhm on Sunday...you, you’re home all week...all... from Monday have you got any plans m so presumably though you’ll be going shopping how many presents have you got to buy yet yeah || There are some obvious differences between these texts. For example, the spoken language appears to have incomplete clauses (e.g. “On Sunday…you, you’re home all week…all…”). In fact, incomplete clauses such as these are a frequent feature of spoken language. The structure of the spoken clauses also appears to be simpler than those of the written text. ** Lexical Words and Function Words ** A useful measure of the difference between texts (for example, between a person’s written language, and a [|transcription of conversation] ) is **lexical density**. In order to calculate lexical density we need to make a distinction between different types of [|words] : (1) **lexical words** (the so-called //content// or //information-carrying// words) and, (2) **function words** (those words which bind together a text) within the word classes of English. ** Lexical words ** include: [|nouns] (e.g. //dog, Susan, oil//) [|adjectives] (e.g. //red, happy, cold//) [|adverbs] (e.g. //very, carefully, yesterday//) ** Function words **, therefore include the remaining: [|auxiliary verbs] (e.g. //can, will, have//) [|numerals] (e.g. //two, three, first//) [|determiners] (e.g. //the, those, my//) [|pronouns] (e.g. //she, yourself, who//) [|prepositions] (e.g. //in, to, after//) [|conjunctions] (e.g. //and, but, if//) A third type of word grouping is also typically recognized: **inserts**. These are words which are used to gain attention, express emotion, protest, and so on (e.g. //okay, right, oh//). These are not considered to be lexical words. ** Lexical Density of Written Language ** Text 1 is reproduced below but this time the lexical words are underlined (you may not necessarily agree with the way I’ve classified the words, there are typically instances of ambiguity when analyzing texts). In 1918, when the chemical industry was first established in the area, Billingham was a village inhabited by a few hundred people but grew rapidly as ICI’s operations expanded, helped by the company’s reputation for providing secure employment. The wages, conditions and benefits offered by ICI were attractive and the company quickly gained a reputation as a good employer. Many of those we interviewed claimed this was their main reason for applying for a job. Our interviews also highlight the influence of family when making decisions about employment and ICI was certainly happy to recruit the sons and daughters of existing workers. There are, therefore, 60 lexical words and 42 function words out of a total of 102. Lexical density is calculated as follows: ** Lexical Density of Speech ** Text 2 is reproduced below but this time the lexical words are underlined. what do you __fancy__ __doing__ on __Saturday__ yeah well we __talked__ about __Saturday__ or __Sunday__ but __Bede__ and __Sinners__ are __playing__ on __Sunday__ so would__n’t__ __give__ us __much__ __time__ to __get__ back for four o __clock__ __especially__ if we __wanted__ to __go__ to __Browton__ so __probably__ __Saturday__ but we’ve __got__ the...__Paul__ __Norton__ and his __wife__ __coming__ round on the __evening__ __time__ for a __meal__ mhm on __Sunday__...you, you__’re__ __home__ all __week__...all... from __Monday__ have you __got__ any __plans__ m so __presumably__ though you’ll be __going__ __shopping__ __ how __ __many__ __presents__ have you __got__ to __buy__ __yet__ yeah || There are, therefore, 48 lexical words and 56 function words out of a total of 104. The lexical density is, therefore: ** Interpretation ** A high lexical density indicates a large amount of information-carrying words and a low lexical density indicates relatively few information-carrying words. The finding that the lexical density of speech (in this case, 46.2%) is less than that of written language (in this case, 58.8%) is typical. We have already noted that speech is typified by incomplete clauses. Incomplete clauses are a product of the speaker having to construct his or her utterances in real time. There is limited time to think about, and plan, what one wishes to say and speakers often commence along one trajectory only to pause and move on in another direction. Incomplete clauses are, however, not a common feature of written texts, where the author has a much longer time to plan and shape the units of meaning that he or she wishes to use. There is sufficient time to select the most appropriate lexical word, review the text and replace words before one makes the text available. The time pressures of speaking typically lead to a lexically simpler text. Lexical density, then, can serve as a useful measure of how much information there is in a particular text. It can also be used to monitor improvements in the use of lexical items (information carrying-words) in children with under-developed vocabulary and/or word finding difficulties. The Freiburg - LOB Corpus of British English (FLOB) Monolingual University of Freiburg In 1991 a group of students at Freiburg University were engaged in what at first sight must appear as an almost anachronistic activity: they were keying in extracts of roughly 2,000 words from British newspapers. The sampling model was the press section of the LOB corpus (see Sand/Siemund 1992). 1992 saw the beginning of a new Brown corpus. The ultimate aim was to compile parallel one-million-word corpora of the early 1990s that matched the original LOB and Brown corpora as closely as possible, and that would thus provide linguists with an empirical basis to study language change in progress. This aim is spelled out in some detail in Mair (1997:196). The parallel corpora were compiled to enable linguists to
 * || ** ABSTRACT: ** Lexical density is a useful measure of the difference between texts (for example, between a person’s written language and their speech). To calculate this we must distinguish between lexical words and function words. The lexical density of two real world examples is calculated and interpreted. Lexical density is shown to be a useful measure of how much information is contained within a text. ||
 * ** Text 1: Written Language ** ||
 * In 1918, when the chemical industry was first established in the area, Billingham was a village inhabited by a few hundred people but grew rapidly as ICI’s operations expanded, helped by the company’s reputation for providing secure employment. The wages, conditions and benefits offered by ICI were attractive and the company quickly gained a reputation as a good employer. Many of those we interviewed claimed this was their main reason for applying for a job. Our interviews also highlight the influence of family when making decisions about employment and ICI was certainly happy to recruit the sons and daughters of existing workers. ||
 * ** Text 2: Spoken Language ** ||
 * okay what do you want to talk about
 * [|lexical verbs] (e.g. //run, walk, sit//)
 * In 1918, __when__ the __chemical__ __industry__ was __first__ __established__ in the __area__, __Billingham__ was a __village__ __inhabited__ by a __few__ hundred __people__ but __grew__ __rapidly__ as __ICI__’s __operations__ __expanded__, __helped__ by the __company__’s __reputation__ for __providing__ __secure__ __employment__. The __wages__, __conditions__ and __benefits__ __offered__ by ICI __were__ __attractive__ and the __company__ __quickly__ __gained__ a __reputation__ as a __good__ __employer__. __Many__ of those we __interviewed__ __claimed__ this __was__ their __main__ __reason__ for __applying__ for a __job__. Our __interviews__ __also__ __highlight__ the __influence__ of __family__ __when__ __making__ __decisions__ about __employment__ and __ICI__ __was__ __certainly__ __happy__ to __recruit__ the __sons__ and __daughters__ of __existing__ __workers__. ||
 * ** Lexical density = (number of lexical words/total number of words) * 100 ** ||
 * = (60/102) * 100 = **58.8%** ||
 * okay what do you __want__ to __talk__ about
 * ** Lexical density = (number of lexical words/total number of words) * 100 ** ||
 * = (48/104) * 100 = **46.2%** ||
 * Lancaster Oslo-Bergen (OLB) Corpus of British English and London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English **
 * Biber/481 spoken and written texts belonging to “registers” such as scientific texts **
 * resource size: ** 2,000 words from British newspapers
 * language(s): **
 * English
 * linguality: **
 * annotator: ** a group of students at Freiburg University
 * annotation format: ** morphosyntactically
 * annotation style: ** syntactic dependencies, POS
 * developed by organisation(s), person(s) or within project(s): **
 * description: **

test at least some current hypotheses on linguistic change in present-day English; detect changes not previously noticed in the literature through the systematic comparison of lexical frequencies, particularly of closed-class items; to tackle systematically one of the major methodological issues in the study of ongoing change, namely the inter-dependence of synchronic regional (in our case British vs. American) and stylistic variation on the one hand, and genuine diachronic developments on the other." Creative Commens  [|Rainer Siemund]
 * url: ** []
 * license type: **
 * originator: **

From Jan Svartvik (ed), //The London Corpus of Spoken English: Description and Research.// Lund Studies in English 82. Lund University Press, 1990. As the name implies, the London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English (LLC) derives from two projects. The first is the Survey of English Usage (SEU) at University College London, launched in 1959 by Randolph Quirk, who was succeeded as Director in 1983 by Sidney Greenbaum. The second project is the Survey of Spoken English (SSE), which was started by Jan Svartvik at Lund University in 1975 as a sister project of the London Survey. The goal of the Survey of English Usage is to provide the resources for accurate descriptions of die grammar of adult educated speakers of English. For that purpose the major activity of the Survey has been the assembly and analysis of a corpus comprising samples of different types of spoken and written British English. The original target for the corpus of one million words has now been reached, and the corpus is therefore complete. The Survey has also engaged in devising and conducting elicitation experiments that are primarily intended to supplement data from the corpus. These experiments have focused on features in divided or rare use or whose grammatical status is in question. Such research has been particularly valuable in producing evidence for variation in usage and judgment among native speakers of English. This field of Survey activity, however, will not concern us here (see further Greenbaum 1988: 83-93). The SEU corpus contains 200 samples or 'texts', each consisting of 5000 words, for a total of one million words. The texts were collected over the last 30 years, half taken from spoken English and half from written English. The spoken English texts comprise both dialogue and monologue. The written English texts include not only printed and manuscript material but also examples of English read aloud, as in broadcast news and scripted speeches. The **range of** varieties assembled in the whole corpus is displayed in Figure 1:1. **Figure 1:1** Corpus of the Survey of English Usage. In this book we are interested in the spoken half of the corpus. As can be seen in the figure, the major distinction is between dialogue and monologue. Within dialogue we distinguish **conversation** in private from **public discussion.** The most common type of conversation is **face-to-face,** which occurs when the participants can see each other and can observe each other's reactions. Technology allows for private conversation by **telephone** when the participants are not in the same place. 'Public discussion' is dialogue that is heard by an audience that does not participate in the dialogue; it includes interviews and panel discussions that have been broadcast. All the telephone conversations and many of the face-to-face conversations were recorded surreptitiously, which means that (at the time of recording) one or more of the participants did not know that their conversation was being preserved. These surreptitiously recorded conversations represent spoken English at its most natural. All the surreptitiously recorded face-to-face conversations with one exception (S.3.7, recorded in 1984) have been published in Svartvik & Quirk (1980). Within monologue we distinguish **spontaneous from prepared.** Spontaneous monologue, which is nearest to conversation in being relatively unplanned, includes running commentaries on sport events and state occasions, demonstrations of experiments, and speeches in parliamentary debates. Prepared monologue, on the other hand, is closest to written English but retains some spontancity in not being read from a script and therefore allowing for improvisation. Typical prepared monologues in the corpus are sermons, lectures, addresses by lawyers and a judge in court, and political speeches. A special type of prepared monologue is represented by the text of dictated letters, where the speech is intended to be written down. The spoken corpus of the Survey of English Usage has been transcribed with a sophisticated marking of prosodic and paralinguistic features. All the SEU texts, written as well as spoken, have been analysed grammatically. The grammatical analysis and the prosodic/paralinguistic analysis are represented in the Survey files by typed slips (6x4 inches). Each slip contains 17 lines, including 4 lines of overlap between that slip and the adjacent ones before and after. For each grammatical, prosodic and paralinguistic feature there is one slip that is marked for that item. The Survey collects 65 grammatical features, over 400 specified words or phrases, and about 100 prosodic and paralinguistic features. In 1975 the Survey of Spoken English was established at Lund. lts initial aim was to make available, in machine-readable form, the spoken material which by then had been collected and transcribed in London: 87 texts totalling sorne 435 000 words (sce Svartvik et al 1982 for an account of the input procedures). The material was inserted in a reduced transcription and without grammatical analysis. Early in 1980 the first copies of the computerized London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English were distributed to interested scholars **all over the world,** This **original** London-Lund Corpus of 87 texts (often referred to as **LLC**) has since been augmented by the remaining 13 spoken texts of the SEU corpus, which were processed at the Survey of English Usage in conforinity with the system used in the original London-Lund Corpus. These 13 texts constitute a **supplement (LLC:s)** to the original computerized version. The complete London-Lund corpus **(LLC:c)** therefore consists of 100 spoken texts. In addition, all the written texts of the SEU corpus are now computerized, but these do not form part of the London-Lund Corpus and will not be distributed, though they can be consulted at the Survey of English Usage at University College London. Since LLC has been widely used in scholarly publications for the last decade, it is important to distinguish in future publications the original version from the supplement and from the complete version that incorporates the supplement. In order to avoid misunderstanding we recommend using suffixes for all three thus: LLC:o the original corpus (87 texts) LLC:s the supplement (13 texts) to the original corpus LLC:c the complete corpus (100 texts) The constituents of the complete SEU corpus are displayed in Figure 1:2. Appendix I lists all the 100 spoken texts of LLC:c in order of text category, and provides (as far as the information is available) the dates of recordings and certain bibliographical details about the speakers. **Figure 1:2** The computerized SEU corpus. Within the written SEU corpus, 17 texts were recorded from spoken deliveries of written material, such as news broadcasts, plays, and scripted speeches. These are not included in LLC:c, though in the computerized version they have Leen transcribed in the same way as the spoken texts. We must distinguish the full prosodic and paralinguistic transcription in the SEU corpus from the reduced transcription in LLC:c and in the computerized 17 texts that were read aloud from written material. The basic prosodic features marked in the **full transcription** are tone unit boundaries, the location of the nucleus (ie the peak of greatest prominence in a tone unit), the direction of the nuclear tone, varying lengths of pauses, and varying degrees of stress. Other features comprise varying degrees of loudness and tempo (eg allegro, clipped, drawled), modifications in voice quality (pitch range, rhythmicality and tension), and paralinguistic features such as whisper and creak. Indications are given of overlap in the utterances of speakers. The full transcription and the grammatical analysis are available only on the slips at the Survey of English Usage at University College London.
 * The London-Lund Corpus of Spoken English **
 * // Sidney Greenbaum & Jan Svartvik //**

Sage Handbook of Writing Development The function of language according to a linguistist is different from that of a writing teacher

Please read the chapter, "How Linguistics Can Inform the Teaching of Writing" in "The Sage Handbook of Writing Development" if you can because this chapter is student friendly. Dr. Horowitz has a copy on hold at the library. I will also post a graphic organizer for tomorrow's presentation. Kalpana M. Iyengar (7.11.11)

Welcome to Spalding.org! Spalding Education International (SEI) is dedicated to teaching //all// students to spell, write and read. SEI is the home of //The Writing Road to Reading,// a comprehensive K-6 total language arts program. In //The Writing Road to Reading,// all elements of the language are integrated in spelling, writing, and reading lessons. || * Phonemic awareness
 * =Spalding Education - Home of Scientifically-based Language Arts Instruction=
 * Systematic phonics
 * High-frequency vocabulary
 * Word meanings and usages
 * Word parts
 * Grammar || * Composition
 * Literary appreciation
 * Text structure
 * Fluency
 * Listening
 * Reading comprehension ||

Reading for Spelling/Reading

Mrs. Spalding constantly sought ways to make her method easier to teach and learn. In //The Spalding Method//, instruction is explicit, systematic, interactive, diagnostic, and multisensory. The success of//The Spalding Method// with diverse students, even those who have learning disabilities or are English Language Learners, is in large part due to the integration of scientifically-based content and methodology. //The Writing Road to Reading// is a favorite of **classroom** and **resource room teachers, adult educators** as well as **home educators**because Spalding-taught students become competent and enthusiastic readers, spellers and writers. It is used with great success in the United States, Canada, Australia, Central America, Europe, Singapore and Taiwan. **Irving Goffman**
 * || [|HOME] | [|SITE MAP] | [|CONTACT] | ||  ||
 * || [|HOME] | [|SITE MAP] | [|CONTACT] | ||  ||

**(1922-1982)** Irving Goffman is one of the leading proponents of symbolic interactionism, a legacy of the so-called Chicago school in modern sociological thought. He used the framework of "dramaturgy" to portray people as actors, whose actions are shaped by the type of interaction they make with others. His best known work is //The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life// (1959). The development of symbolic interactionism as a sociological perspective was associated with George Simmel, George Herbert Mead, Charles Cooley, and Herbert Blumer, among others. Goffman gave symbolic interactionism a profound importance and took it to the level of the average man. **Meaning and Elements of Symbolic Interactionism** Symbolic interactionism is about social interactions, use of symbols and the assignment of meanings to these symbols, interpretation of stimulus and response, and development of the self as a construct emerging from interactions, use of symbols and interpretation. It was Blumer who coined the term and popularized it in 1937. Said he: > "The term 'symbolic interactionism' refers, of course, to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place between human beings. The peculiarity consists in the fact that human beings interpret or 'define' each other's actions instead of merely reacting to each other's actions. Their 'response' is not made directly to the actions of one another but instead based on the meaning which they attach to such actions. Thus, human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols, by interpretation, or by ascertaining the meaning of one another's actions." (Blumer, p. 180, in Paul Gingrich) In psychology, symbolic interactionism corresponds with behaviorism or learning theory. **Principles of Symbolic Interactionism** **Life as a Drama** Goffman brought symbolic interactionism closer to home by studying the way //roles// are constructed in everyday life. Using the familiar concept of drama, or dramaturgy, he analyzes social life using an analogy to the theater, with human social behavior seen as more or less //scripted// according to the roles taken upon by actors. Life as a drama, and the roles played to make it meaningful, are equated with theatrical conditions in which actors appear in a front stage according to the roles they are supposed to play as part of a crew or "team." After enacting their roles, the "real" self is presented at the back stage in a different way. The simplicity and variety of roles people play make symbolic interactionism appeal to the ordinary readers. Roles come in many form, and are acquired in different manner. //Role-taking// is a key mechanism of interaction, defined by particular situations and environments. **Criticisms** A major critique of this perspective is that it is "overly impressionistic" in its research methodology. It is also charged with sharp criticism as somewhat "unsystematic" and overly concerned with small-group interactions. Another criticism is that it lacks precision for operationalization and testing. It is highly subjective. Finally, it is applicable mostly to small groups where members are usually closely knit and have face-to-face relations. In large groups, the informality makes it difficult to study social interactions and consensus on symbols or their meanings. **Internet Resources:**
 * Human beings, unlike lower animals, are endowed with the capacity for thought.
 * The capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction.
 * In social interaction people learn the meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human capacity for thought.
 * People are able to modify or alter the meanings and symbols that they use in action and interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation.
 * People are able to make these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact with themselves, which allows them to examine possible courses of action, assess their relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one.
 * The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies. (Ritzer & Goodman, pp. 351-355)
 * [|Biography of Erving Goffman]
 * [|Symbolic Interactionism,]by Paul Gingrich
 * [|Symbolic Interactionism,]by Kent McClelland